Sharing the Earth, Dividing the Land: Territorial Categories and Institutions in the Austronesian World
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Sharing the Earth, Dividing the Land

Territorial Categories and Institutions in the Austronesian World

Dedication

This book is dedicated to all the people of the Asia Pacific whose land has been alienated in the wake of colonialism, modernity and development, and whose traditional insights into human beings’ relationship with their physical environment have rarely received the serious consideration they indisputably deserve.

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments

1. Land and Territory in the Austronesian World

Land and Territory in the Context of Human Mobility and Globalisation: A Theoretical Debate and an Ethnological Solution

The Social Construction of Land, Place and Territory in the Austronesian World: From Ethnography to Comparative Ethnology

Austronesian Territorial Categories
Metaphors of Socio-Spatial Relations
From Ritual Domains to States: Scales of Complexity

Contemporary Issues and New Directions in Comparative Austronesian Studies

2. The Origin Structure of Kute Among the Gumai: An Analysis of an Indigenous Territorial Institution in the Highlands of South Sumatra

Village Origin Structure

Precedence and Village Ritual Specialists
The Division of a Village
Multiple Village Origins and Subgroups
The Merging of Two Villages

Continuity of Person

Marriage Contracts and Residential Rules
Petunggu Dusun

Continuity of Place

Lunjuk, Balai Desa and Mosque
Graveyard

The Marga System and its Impact

3. Ritual Domains and Communal Land in the Highlands of Bali

Introduction
Highland Bali and Comparative Austronesian Studies: Historical and Linguistic Considerations
The Ritual Domains of Highland Bali
Concluding Remarks
References

4. Banua or Negara? The Culture of Land in South Bali

The Cultural Landscape of South Bali

Land Tenure

Trans-local Organisation

The ‘Ritual Domain’ of the Wos Valley

Irrigation
Rsi Markandeya
The Migratory Habits of Barong
Bale Agung and Reversals of Orientation
Puri Ubud

Networks and Layers

Negara and Banua

Negara Ubud

The Network as a System of Knowledge

Negara or Banua?

Twentieth-Century Transformations

5. Tanah Berkat (Blessed Land): The Source of the Local in the Banda Islands, Central Maluku

Introduction
The Blessed Land
The Negeri Adat
Adat and Being Muslim
Conclusion
References

6. Mapping Buru: The Politics of Territory and Settlement on an Eastern Indonesian Island

Noro and Fena: Clan and Land on Buru
Living on the Land: Residence and Settlement on Buru
‘Where They Marry Each Other’: Territory as Localised Networks of Affinity
People of the Mountains and People of the Coast: Sharing the Land with Outsiders
The Colonial Creation of Raja and Regentschap: Making the Outsider King
The Indonesian Creation of Desa: Making the Outsider Village Head
Conclusion: Mapping as Power
References

7. Traditional Territorial Categories and Constituent Institutions in West Seram: The Nili Ela of ’WELE Telu Batai and the Alune Hena of Ma’saman Uwei

Introduction
The Setting
’Wele Telu Batai
The Nili Ela Organisation
Nuru and Hena
Hena Ma’saman Uwei
Land Allocation in Hena Ma’saman Uwei
Conclusion
References

8. From Domains to Rajadom: Notes on the History of Territorial Categories and Institutions in the Rajadom of Sikka

Introduction

Tana as a Territorial Category in Tana ’Ai

Territorial Categories in Central Sikka

Tana and the Creation of the Sikkanese Polity

Portuguese Missions and Administrative Territories Created by the Dutch

The Reconceptualisation of Territorial Categories in Central Sikka

Acknowledgment

9. We Are Children Of The Land: A Keo Perspective

Introduction
The History and Development of Tana Worowatu
Land Tenure in Worowatu
The Land is Our Mother
Guardians of the Land
Incorporated Groups
A Conflict Over Land
Oral History and Land Tenure
Conclusion
References

10. Contending for Ritual Control of Land and Polity: Comparisons from the Timor Area of Eastern Indonesia

Defining a Focus
Land and Domain on Roti
The Domain of Termanu
Comparison with the Atoni Pah Meto of Timor
The Domain of Amanuban
The Tetun of Timor
Contemplating Categories: Comparisons of ‘Male’ and ‘Female’
Conclusions
References

11. Fataluku Forest Tenures and the Conis Santana National Park in East Timor

Introduction

Locating Fataluku

Origins and Inscriptions of Place

Forests, Settlements and Dislocation

Perspectives from the Paichao Range
Perspectives from the Vero River Valley

On Fataluku Customary Tenures and Forest Management

12. Self-Scaling the Earth: Relations of Land, Society and Body Among North Mekeo, Papua New Guinea

Introduction
The Village and the Bush
The Human Body
Society
The Clan as a Body
Ngaka Vital Essence
Village and Tribal Chiefdoms
Conclusions
References

13. The Ways of the Land-Tree: Mapping the North Pentecost Social Landscape

Atatun Vanua: The People of the Place
Bwatmahanga: The Foundation Diverges
Bwatuna: Foundations for the Land-tree
Halana: The Ways of the Land-Tree
Tavalui: The Divided World
Alengan Tuturani: The Ways of Foreigners
References

14. Finishing the Land: Identity and Land Use in Pre- and Post-Colonial North Ambrym

Introduction
Land and National Consciousness in Vanuatu
The Vocabulary of Place in North Ambrym
The ‘Grounds’ for Being
Placement and Precedence
‘Finishing the Land’
References

15. People and Place in Tonga: The Social Construction of Fonua in Oceania

Introduction

Local Territory and Global Identity
Arrival: Austronesian-Speaking Peoples in Tonga
The Tongan Island Group: A Local Geography

Fonua in Tongan Cosmology

Lau Langi, ‘The Skies’
The Talatupu’a: A Story of the Past

Fonua in Tongan History

Locality and Lineage in Pre-constitution Tonga
Guardians of the People/Place: Tauhifonua and Matapule
Fonua and Agricultural Production

Fonua in Contemporary Tonga

Constitutional Changes and the Individualisation of Land Tenure
Fonua and Contemporary National Identity

Fonua as Home

Spatial Categories in Social Context

Introduction
Setting the Scene: The Idea of the Construct *Banua and its Interpretation
Tracing Ideas of the *Banua (and *Taneq/*Tanoq) in Eastern Indonesia and the Pacific
Comparative Excursions
References

Contributors

List of Figures

2.1. Map 1: Ethnic groups in South Sumatra province
2.2. Figure 1: Genealogy of Mandi Angin village
2.3. Figure 2: Genealogy of two Jungkuk of Tanjung Karangan village
2.4. Figure 3: Genealogy of the origin of the Mimbar of Mandi Angin village
2.5. Figure 4: Genealogy of Sugih Waras village
3.1. Figure 1: Ritual networks in the highlands of Bali
3.2. Figure 2: The path of origin and the ritual order of a domain (banua)
4.1. Figure 1: Typical Desa layouts
4.2. Figure 2: The Pura Gunung Lebah network
4.3. Figure 3: The Wos Valley
4.4. Figure 4: The Upper Wos Valley: irrigation
4.5. Figure 5: The Upper Wos Valley: Rsi Markandeya’s journey
4.6. Figure 6: The Upper Wos Valley: barong migrations
4.7. Figure 7: The Upper Wos Valley: bale agung orientations
4.8. Figure 8: Upper Wos Valley: Puri Ubud patronage
4.9. Figure 9: Ubud territory in the late 19th century
6.1. Map 1: Wae Katin, Wae Loo and surrounding villages
6.2. Map 2: Coastal immigrant communities on Buru
6.3. Map 3: Approximate location of coastal villages removed to Kayeli Fort in 1658
6.4. Map 4: Regentschap of Buru circa 1850
6.5. Map 5: Indonesian subdistricts (kecamatan): North-West Buru, North-East Buru and South Buru
6.6. Map 6: Regentschap of Buru perceived as historical vestiges of Buru ‘tradition’ (adat) in 1991
6.7. Map 7: The boundaries of desa territories on Buru Island
7.1. Map 1: West Seram, Ambon and Uliaser
7.2. Figure 1: The tree of Nili Sapalewa Batai (circa 1903)
7.3. Figure 2: The land and settlements of Hena Ma’saman Uwei
8.1. Map 1: Settlements and domains (tana) of Tana ’Ai
8.2. Plate 1: Remains of Mahé Mo’ang Hi’eng at Héwoklo’ang (1979)
8.3. Plate 2: Remains of the Mahé at Baomékot (1979)
8.4. Plate 3: Remains of the Mahé at Kangae (2000)
8.5. Plate 4: The organisation of the Rajadom of Sikka in the era of Mo’ang Don Alésu da Silva (Pareira unpublished [2002]: 12-13)
8.6. Figure 1: The Organisation of the Rajadom of Sikka in the Era of Mo’ang Don Alésu da Silva (after Pareira unpublished [2002]: 12-13)
8.7. Map 2: Clusters of placenames and villages identified with the Ten Sitting Lords
8.8. Map 3: Metzner’s reconstruction of the tana of Central Sikka.
8.9. Map 4: Dominican mission stations on Flores, Adonara and Solor in the 16th century (after Visser 1925: 292)
8.10. Map 5: Dutch administrative divisions of Flores, 1879-1907
8.11. Map 6: Dutch administrative divisions of Flores, 1907-09
8.12. Map 7: Dutch administrative divisions of Flores, 1909-31
8.13. Map 8: Political divisions of Sikka towards the end of the 19th century and before Dutch intervention in the border dispute between Sikka and Larantuka
8.14. Map 9: Political divisions of Sikka in the early 20th century after Dutch intervention
8.15. Map 10: Administrative divisions of Flores, 1931 to early 1950s
9.1. Map 1: The Keo Region of Central Flores
9.2. Figure 1: The founding ancestors of Worowatu and their descendants
9.3. Figure 2: Structure of precedence in dealing with Keo land cultivation
9.4. Figure 3: The genealogy of the Hadramis in Ma’unori
11.1. Map 1: Lautem showing approximate location of the conservation zone
12.1. Figure 1: Village, bush and daily transfers between them (after Mosko 1985: 36)
12.2. Figure 2: Body Space: inside, outside, inside everted and outside inverted
12.3. Figure 3: Classification of North Mekeo chiefly offices
12.4. Figure 4: The clan body and kofuapie relationships
13.1. Figure 1: Land-tree one
13.2. Figure 2: Land-tree two
13.3. Figure 3: Lineal segmentation from a unity (left, after Rumsey 2001: 29), and serial bifurcation at specific nodal points (right)
15.1. Figure 1: Territorial/social divisions of fonua

List of Tables

2.1. Residential patterns of newly married couples in Gumai Talang between 1994 and 1995 (%)
6.1. Clan affiliation of households in six Buru villages
6.2. Buru settlement patterns
6.3. Noro of the spouses of Gebhain clan members in the villages of Wae Katin and Wae Loo

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		Acknowledgments