Abstract
In this paper, we continue our long-term project of developing a situated information systems analysis and design methodology, and present it as a radical alternative to conventional information systems analysis and design. Taking a situated approach entails focusing on action and a situated analysis and design methodology aims to increase efficiency and effectiveness through supporting routine action. We suggest that, as well as improving effectiveness and temporal efficiency, applying the situated methodology will result in less wasted human effort expended in search of information. We discuss the implications of an action focus for our conception of what an information system should be, and illustrate the application of the methodology with examples from a case study.
Table of Contents
Conventional information systems attempt to represent the real world (Weber, 1997). As the real world changes, the information system is updated. In other words, the information system enables tracking of state changes in the real-world system. As Weber points out:
… building, operating, maintaining, and observing the states of the information system must be less costly than observing the states of the real-world phenomena. Otherwise, there is little point to building the information system. We might as well observe the real-world phenomena directly (Weber, 1997).
In this paper, we present the case for a situated system, a radically different type of information system designed to support action in the world. Rather than attempting to represent the real world, the situated system informs actors when to do something and what to do without the need for recourse to a representation of the state of the world; the information is located ‘in’ the world and can be observed directly.
In previous publications (Johnston and Milton, 2002; Johnston et al., 2005) we have identified what we call the deliberative theory of action, which assumes that an actor uses a mental model of the world to decide what to do next. We have critiqued this theory of action, arguing that in routine action, actors respond directly to structures in the environment in order to attain goals. This alternative theory of action, the situated theory of action, informs our long-term project to develop an analysis and design methodology for situated information systems.
This paper is a conceptual output from the long term project of developing an analysis and design methodology based on the situated theory of action (Johnston and Milton 2002; Johnston et al., 2005; Milton et al., 2005). This program of research has proceeded by means of case studies. Two case studies have been conducted to inform the development of the methodology. These case studies have provided an opportunity to test our ideas and reflect on their practical application. The first case study is reported in Johnston et al. (2005), while the second case study is reported in Waller et al. (2006). Between the publications, there has been a gradual evolution in our understanding of the nature of the appropriate abstraction. Whereas the previous iteration of the methodology involved abstraction from work practices to goals and constraints, the methodology now focuses more explicitly on analysing action at multiple levels of abstraction. Hence, while reflection on the conduct of the case studies has helped refine our concepts, the concepts that we present are developed from a theoretical starting point rather than being entirely generated from or grounded in empirical data. Vignettes from the second case study are included to illustrate the theoretical points and to give examples of practical application of the methodology. Although these vignettes are from a case study conducted in a clinical setting, the methodology is for use to support routine action in any type of organisation.
We advance the project of developing situated systems by showing how a situated approach to systems analysis and design demands a focus on action. We then show how a focus on action leads to a different understanding of how best to provide information support. We explain how restructuring the environment and providing situated information to actors can enable routine conduct of actions, with lighter-weight information systems and increased efficiency and effectiveness. We draw on our insights into the nature of action and routine action to produce a new kind of information system analysis and design methodology, and we outline the principles of this situated systems analysis and design methodology as well as illustrate its application with examples from a case study.The methodology will be useful to organisations by allowing them to increase efficiency and effectiveness through supporting routine action. Unlike conventional information systems, as well as increasing temporal efficiency, situated systems also aim to increase human efficiency; in particular, to reduce wasted human effort expended in search of information. They can also increase effectiveness by preventing incorrect actions.