It is not easy for me to decide which Islamic institutions played the most important role in the emergence of the Islamic revivalism among the young people in Indonesia, especially in Bandung. As I focused my study on the Islamic revivalism among young people, including students from the mid-1970s to early 1990s, I studied the case among the university campuses. During this period Islamic activities in almost all university campuses began to take shape. Public and campus mosques were crowded by young people, most of them students. They came to pray (sholat), attend public sermons (pengajian) and take part other activities. This was followed by the ‘veil (kerudung or jilbab) movement’. Female university students and later senior high school students started to wear head cover.

In Bandung, Salman Mosque at the ITB (Bandung Institute of Technology)^[15] was the first Islamic institution in which Islamic activities for young people were held in a proper organisation. That Salman Mosque with its Karisma organisation was the most influential Islamic institution in the Islamic youth resurgence movement in Bandung and in Indonesia, was reported by V.S. Naipaul who visited Bandung in the late 1970s. Naipaul observed that Bandung is “one of centres of the Islamic revival in Indonesia” (1981:338). Thousands of young people from Jakarta, Bogor and other cities in Indonesia came to attend a short Islamic course, which he called ‘mental training’, at Salman Mosque at The Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB, Institut Teknologi Bandung). The course was given by Imaduddin, an electrical engineer, a lecturer at the institute, who hadalso graduated from the ITB. Imaduddin is one of the most important figures involved in the establishment of the Salman Mosque, and in general in the emergence of Islamic youth resurgent movementin Bandung.

His full name was Muhammad Imaduddin Abdulrahim. Among young people, he was called Bang Imad.^[16] He was born in 1931 to a devout Muslim family in Medan, North Sumatra. His mother was from a noble family of the Riau Sultanate. Because of his mother's position, he could enter the Dutch School, HIS (Hollandsch Inlandische School) which only recruited children from noble and aristocrat families (Ulumul Qur'an 2:5:94). His father was a religious teacher, who graduated from Al-Azhar Islamic University, Cairo, Egypt. He was one of the teachers of a famous religious school (madrasah) run by the sultanate in the Dutch time. At this school, he was also one of the principals (Naipaul 1981:345). In the political sphere, Imaduddin's father was one of the leaders of Masyumi, representing his region, North Sumatra. Moreover, in the Council of the Muslim Clergy he had the highest position, as a qadi (Muslim judge) (Naipaul 1981:347 and Ulumul Qur'an, 2:5:94).

During the revolution against the Dutch, Imaduddin was involved in the Muslim Army Hizbullah.^[17] At the age of fifteen, in 1946, he was trained as a guerilla fighter, and he received a star and a stripe as a first sergeant. In 1953, he finished his high school with the highest mark. While he was a student in Medan, he was one of the leaders of thestudents in his school. After finishing high school he continued his study in ITB. His ideal of becoming an electrical engineer was deeply influenced by Dr. Hatta's speech on his visit to the largest waterfall close to Medan. In his speech Hatta, who was then the vice president, stressed the importance of electricity (Naipaul 1981:346).

In 1953 he found Bandung and especially ITB a secular place. He found it difficult to find any mosque around the institute. The closest mosque was about three kilometres away. Before 1957, when Sukarno threw the Dutch out, almost all lecturers and professors in the institute were Dutch, and most of the lectures were presented in English. On his first Friday, Imaduddin was shocked by the fact that some classes took place during prayer time. Since he was brought up in a strict Muslim family, absence from Friday prayer in the mosque was quite a mental shock for Imaduddin. He asked permission to go to the mosque. The lecturer allowed him and his three friends to go. He went tothe mosque but he missed the lecture. This happened every Friday. He felt that the campus was dry ofreligious activities.^[18] He became inspired by the idea of having a mosque close to the campus (Naipaul 1981:347)

When he entered the ITB he became involved in HMI (Islamic Student Association). In1954 he was appointed as a head of education and preaching (dakwah) of the HMI Bandung region. This position forced him to organise various training activities for members of the organisation. His experience in managing training activities later inspired him to hold similar activities in Salman Mosque.

One year after he finished his study in 1961, he became a lecturer in the Institute. Later, beside teaching his discipline, ie. electrical engineering, he also taught the Religion of Islam.^[19] In 1963 he was involved in the committee for the development of the Salman mosque, in which he served as deputy chairman. He also held Islamic discussions and pengajian (religous lecture). Gradually, his preachings attracted audiences who not only came from among the ITB students but also young people and students from surrounding areas. In the same year, ITB sent him to the United States to get his masters' degree. He studied there for three years at Iowa State University.

After finishing his study in 1965, he was asked to return to Indonesia to teach again at the ITB as some of the lecturers had been involved in 30 th September Communist movement (G30 S PKI) and were dismissed. On his return to Indonesia, HMI held a National Congress in Solo. Knowing that Imaduddin had returned, the congress nominated him as the head of Preaching Institution of Islamic Students (LDMI,Lembaga Dakwah Mahasiswa Islam). Through this position he met Nurcholish Madjid (now a celebrated Indonesian Muslim intellectual), Abdul Latief (now the Minister of Employment) and Mar'ie Muhammad (now the Finance Minister). From that timehe regularly held training activities for university students, which he called LKD (Latihan Kader Dakwah, Preaching Cadre Training) and later changed into LMD (Latihan Manajemen Dakwah, Preaching Management Training).

In 1970, the Malaysian Minister of Education came to ITB Bandung and with his group joined Friday prayer. Imaduddin was, at that time, the imam and the khatib. Interested in Imaduddin' s methods of Islamic education, the minister asked him to come to Malaysia to encourage Islamic resurgence, as Imaduddin had done in Indonesia.^[20] He happily agreed to the request, and in 1971 he went to Malaysia as a lecturer from the ITB, under the auspices of the Indonesian Ministry of Education (Imaduddin 1990:xvi–vii).

The first thing he did in Malaysia was to propose that Islamic subjects be included in the university curriculum, as had been done in Indonesia in 1962. While he was teaching at the University of Technology Malaysia (UTM) in Kuala Lumpur, he also conducted religious talks for selected groups of Malay students, whom he felt had leadership qualities, at different campuses in Kuala Lumpur. Students regarded him as a powerful and convincing orator who could awaken awareness in his audiences of their wrongdoing. According to Shukran Jamel Zaini, a dakwah leader, “[Imaduddin] made us realise the gravity of our wrongdoing and that we could not carry out a dichotomous life when we believe that Islam is a complete way of life” (Anwar 1987:20).

In the middle of 1972, because of student enthusiasm for his teaching, he proposed a special Islamic course, organised during the semester holidays. The course lasted about four days and five nights, and was held in a surau.^[21] The participants were limited to 40 students, and they had to pass an interview. Through this interview Imaduddin tried to select students who were not only clever but also had leadership talent. It was expected that after the course they would become the pioneers of the dakwah movement on university campuses. The course ended with tahajud (anoptional midnight prayer) and bai'ah (oath)^[22] together before dawn (subuh). Imaduddin named this course LKD (Latihan Kader Dakwah, Preacher Cadre Training (Imaduddin 1990:xix–xx).

At UTM, he developed a core group of about 100 followers, many of whom later went to Britainto study and continued their dakwah activities. When they came back to Malaysia, with more committed zeal for Islam, they taught at various universities and other institutions in Malaysia (Anwar 1987:21). Their dakwah movement became much bigger and stronger, especially when they had higher positions in the places where they worked. One of the students trained by Imaduddin was Anwar Ibrahim, who now is a leader of UMNO (United Malays National Organisation) party and Deputy Prime Minister.

The link with an Indonesian Muslim activist was as an important impetus to Islamic resurgence in Malaysia. This link in fact was started when HMI (Himpunan Mahasiswa Islam Indonesia, Muslim Students' Association) helped ABIM (Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia, Muslim Youth Movement of Malaysia) and PKPIM (Persatuan Kebangsaan Pelajar-Pelajar Islam Malaysia, National Association of Muslim Students Malaysia) to organise several Islamic training trips to Jakarta and Bandung. The HMI leaders helped ABIMto formulate ideas and arguments against the Nationalist and Socialist forces in their universities and in the government (Anwar 1987:18–19).

Imaduddin stayed in Malaysia until he was ‘returned’ (dikembalikan) to Indonesia in September 1973. In his view, the Malaysian authorities expelled him because of his critical attitude. When he first came to Malaysia, he was actually shocked by the act of a mufti (religious high judge) who kissed the hand of the Sultan. Finally, in the middle of July 1973 Imaduddin was invited to be a key note speaker at a big public sermon (tabligh akbar). In this sermon he criticised the hypocritical attitude of some leaders who were known as drunkards but regarded students who used drugs as criminal (Imaduddin 1990:xxiii).

His visit to Malaysia increased his interest in the international Muslim movement. He then visited Libya, England and Pakistan. Because of his wide connections and his position in the Islamic Student Association (HMI) as the head of the Islamic Student Preaching Institution (Lembaga Dakwah Mahasiswa Islam, LDMI) he was nominated to be a secretary of the International Islamic Federation of Student Organisations (IIFSO) (Naipaul 1981:349 and Aziz 1989:217). In the name of this organisation, he held or sponsored LMD (Latihan Manajemen Dakwah) type of training in many Islamic organisations in Australia, Korea, Hongkong and Europe (Ulumul Qur'an 2:5:94). This organisation linked him more closely to the ideas of the Muslim Brotherhood (Ikhwanul Muslimin) movement, which was established by Hasan Al-Banna in Egypt. He also gained contact with other Islamic movements such as Jami'at Islami founded by Abul A'la Maududi in Pakistan. It is not surprising that his view of Islam was deeply influenced by these movements.

In 1974, a year after he returned from Malaysia, he held LMD (Latihan Manajement Dakwah) training in Salman Mosque of ITB, but with a small change, ie. from Latihan Managemen Dakwah into Latihan Mujahid Dakwah (Dakwah Warrior Training).^[23] At this time he was no longer the head of Islamic Student Preaching Institution (LDMI) of the HMI, because after the 10th HMI congress in Palembang in 1971, the LDMI was removed from the HMI structure (HMI 1972), and Imaduddin no longer held a central position in the institution (Aziz 1989:218).

Latihan Mujahid Dakwah training activity was the embryo of the development of Islamic intensification groups in Salman Mosque of ITB and in the Bandung area which have continued until now. The LMD was originally aimed to create a breakthrough in the development of Islam, especially in the ITB. It formed cadres of Islamic preachers who became pioneers of the development of Islam. To achieve this, at least three aspects were stressed: basic knowledge of Islam, implantation of the spirit of struggle, and commitment to the group. The first aspect was related to the basic information (and some misconceptions) about Islam and its teachings. Problems faced by Muslim Ummat were introduced and discussed to develop participants' awareness and responsibility. Moreover, it encouraged participants to struggle for Islam. The training, which lasted one or two weeks continuously, was ended with a  bai'at, an oath as an inauguration. With the bai'at, the collective determination of theparticipants to spread the mission was strengthened.

Since LMD was considered as training to form preacher cadres, all participants had to pass through a selection in the form of an interview. The selection was based on participants' Islamic knowledge, personality, motivation, aims and their attitude towards the program. Moreover, theintellectual potential of the participants, specifically shown by the cumulative marks of the students (Indeks Prestasi, IP), was considered. For the ITB students, for example, the minimal IP was 2.75. Therefore the aim of the training, i. e. to form cadres withthe qualities of faith and morals, combined with scientific and intellectual abilities was clear in the first stage of training (Aziz 1989:268–9).

In 1979 the name of the training program was changed to Intensive Islamic Study (SII). On the one hand, this can be seen as a broadening of the program, in terms of target and time. On the other hand, this was the only way to keep the training going in the face of external pressure. According to Imaduddin, there were hostile feelings, especially from military authorities, with regardto the word ‘mujahid,’ in Latihan Mujahid Dakwah.^[24] This is because the word Interview with Imaduddin, 8 March 1994. ‘mujahid,’ which means warrior, fighter and one who fights in a holy war, has a rebellious connotation (like Komando Jihad rebellion) and often implies the idea of an Islamic state (Darul Islam, DI). In 1978 he was accused of being anti- Pancasila, anti- Christian and not being nationalist, and because of these accusations he was detained for14 months.^[25] Afterthis detention he was not allowed to teach at the ITB, and in 1980 he went to America to continue his study for a PhD degree. In 1986 he returned to Indonesia, but he could not go back to the ITB because he had been fired by his dean (Ulumul Qur'an 2:5:94).

In Imaduddin' s view for the umpteenth time he became a victim of corrupt leaders and a bad system. Indonesia for Imaduddin was a place to be cleansed, and it was full of injustice and therefore un-Islamic. The ideal for him was an Islamic state, as it was practiced in the era of the Prophet and his four Caliphates. However, for Imaduddin, the Indonesian constitution had some Islamic values in it. ‘What we need now is the people behind the structure. They must be true Muslims'. He believed that what was needed now was a true Muslim leader, ‘who lived according to the Quran, … who could stand in for the Prophet, … who knew the Prophet’ s deeds so well that he would order affairs as the Prophet himself might have ordered them’ (Naipaul 1981:350–2). For this reason, Imaduddin was concerned with Islamic education for youngsters.

During his second time in America, he often met and discussed issues with Muslim intellectuals, such as Nurcholis Madjid, Amin Rais and Syafi'i Ma'arif, who also studied in America. From these discussions emerged an idea to unite Muslim intellectuals in Indonesia. On his return he tried to promote his idea through various activities but always failed. However, in1990 his idea became a reality when a symposium of Muslim intellectuals was held in the Brawijaya University Malang, from which Indonesian Muslim Intellectuals Association (ICMI, Ikatan Cendekiawan Muslim se-Indonesia) was born.

From Imaduddin's individual background emerge four important issues. First, Imaduddinisan example of those who came from strong Islamic circles in rural areas and then moved to a city, in which modernisation and Western (Dutch) institutions clearly existed. Living in the Westernised and secularised milieu of the ITB (at the time when most of its lecturers were European) he missedthe ‘religious’ environment he was used to. Second, Imaduddin's critical view of the social and political situation led him to pseudo-political opposition to a suppressiveand strict political system. Through various small group forums and Islamic training among the university students, Imaduddin spread his political perceptions and at the same time his theological and Islamic ideas, which often supported one another. These discussion groups and training institutions later provided a shelter for various students movements banned in 1979. Furthermore, these institutions became a center of Muslim student activists who were not satisfied with established Islamic student organisations. Such a tendency emerged, I believe, because student movements and Islamic youth movements have something in common, namely their social and political criticism of the existing regime. Third, it is clear that Imaduddin's Islamic and political ideas were influenced by various Islamic movements throughout the world such as Ikhwanal-Muslimin (Muslim Brethren) in Egypt and Jamaat-i-Islami (Islamic society) in Pakistan. His meeting in international Islamic forums led him to know more about other Islamic movements and other political and Islamic ideas. Furthermore, Imaduddin was deeply involved in the early emergence of the Islamic youth resurgence movement in Malaysia, when he helped the foundation of ABIM (Muslim Youth Movement of Malaysia). Finally, without neglecting the roles of other figures or institutions, Imaduddin was a charismatic figure, a convincing radical and a brave person (cf. Anwar 1987:19–27) who played a significant role in the early emergence of Islamic youth resurgence movement in Bandung, and perhaps in Indonesia.

In conclusion, this analysis has focused on the factors contributing to religious resurgenceespecially among young people. First, there is social dissatisfaction and frustration -notonly in terms of social, economic and political subordination but also in terms of spiritual or religious deprivation- experienced by some part of society. This dissatisfaction is an accumulation of a long period of unfulfilled expectation. Second, this social dissatisfaction is initially experienced only by a few individual members of society, by whom the idea of dissatisfaction is spread to the wider part of the society. Very few of these individual members are charismatic^[26] figures who are able to convince and spread the idea to other people. Third, the nature of youth which is radical, critical and rebellious toward the status quo became a significant factor for the early emergence of the movement. Finally, there are some events or issues which triggered the initial emergence of the movement. These events do not occur only at local or national level but also at the international level.