NU's effort to return to being Jam‘iya Islamiya (lit. an Islamic organisation), a move which marked the defeat of Islamic politics^[22], has produced a favourable situation for the emergence of a new consciousness among members of the necessity to work on Islamic development generally rather than becoming involved in politics. The consciousness has also pushed them to reevaluate the nature of their relationship with other Muslim groups. They try to have recourse to the source which they usually used, that is Islam itself, by revaluing the concept of ukhuwa Islamiya (Muslim Brotherhood). This new consciousness has brought them to the notion that the ideological differences between various Islamic groups should be put aside.

Previously in Jombang, as I have noted, the conflict between various Islamic groups was not as sharp as in other cities. Nevertheless, it was a common phenomenon, especially during the 1950s and the 1960s. In the opinion of a Muhammadiyah leader in Ngoro, Azhar, it was rare and almost impossible for NU members previously to sit together with Muhammadiyah members in a pengajian. This was due to the negative attitude of NU members towards Muhammadiyah. He further said that a few NU members even regarded Muhammadiyah as kafir. During the period of communist killing, according to Azhar^[23], one kiai suggested that “setelah menyembelih PKI, ya menyembelih Muhammadiyah” (lit. after killing communists, the second step is to kill Muhammadiyah). Azhar nevertheless realised that the attitude of NU members towards his organisation is changing. When I asked some Muslim villagers about their perception of a group other than their own, for example, the response was always the same: “mereka sama-sama Islam” (they are all Muslims). This change in consciousness in respect of the relationship between various groups is significant.

Most Muslim figures in Jombang realise that group fanaticism previously marked the relationship between various Muslim groups. According to them, the political situation made the relationship between Muslim groups deviate from what is conceptualised by Islam, and politics made the differences between these groups an issue which estranged one group from another. Islam actually provides guidelines on how the relationship between Muslims should be. A precept of the Qur'an states that “verily Muslims are brothers”. In a well known hadith it is suggested that “a Muslim relationship's to another is like a building in which all parts are meant to support each other”. The relationship between Muslims is conceptualised in what is called ukhuwa Islamiya. Each Muslim should treat another Muslim as a brother or sister. The concept of ukhuwa Islamiya hence tries to bind Muslims together. As Islam is the underlying factor in this relationship, the emotional factor, arising from being similar in faith, has actually provided Muslims with a large house, that is the umma (Muslim society).

The essence of the concept of Muslim brotherhood, according to Kiai Arwani^[24], is actually inherent in the acknowledgement of the oneness of Allah. This acknowledgement can juxtapose one Muslim to another, since everything is owned by Allah. Everything done by a Muslim will essentially return to Allah, not to the individual's group or for his own benefit. In practice, the essence of this concept is applied in the life of some Muslims. For example, the concept of hadiya (offering prayers for the dead) in the tarekat world, according to Arwani, is an expression of such brotherhood, since Muslims in this sense are praying for other Muslims. The application of this concept is thus not limited to living Muslims but can also extend to relations between them and dead Muslims. It is very common for a tarekat member to offer a hadiya for his brother or another Muslim who has died.

The re-evaluation and application of ukhuwa Islamiya in a more appropriate way represents a self critique by Muslims of themselves after they experienced and acknowledged their misconduct in regard to their relationships with each other. One may then ask: what is the attitude of Muslims towards the existence of a number of Islamic organisations, which were in fact the source that gave rise to internal conflict between them. As the umma or ukhuwa Islamiya would lead to the unification of all Muslim interests for the sake of Islam, the availability of so many Islamic organisations may hinder efforts to reach such a feeling of unity. There is no single answer to this question, since there are a number of variables which should be taken into consideration. One thing that is clear, however, is that the effort to apply the concept of umma does not necessarily mean putting Muslims into one big institution. Not only would this be impossible, but it also contradicts the nature of Islam, which acknowledges a variety of Muslim groups either in terms of ethnic differences or differences of interests. 

From the interviews which I conducted, it is interesting to note that the majority of respondents disagreed with any effort to merge the various existing Islamic organisations into one. They suggested (71.4 percent) that Islamic organisations “harus dibiarkan apa adanya” (should be kept as they are). There is no need to reduce their number. Those who advocated the formation of a sole organisation for all Muslims in Indonesia accounted for about 13.7 percent. Only 6.0 percent of respondents recommended that the number of other Islamic organisations be reduced and their members be absorbed into the respondents’ own organisation (see Table 8.1).

n = 182.

(Source: questionaire).

The change in the perception of NU members about other Muslim groups, particularly Muhammadiyah, can be attributed to the change in attitude of NU's da‘i (preacher). There are two points I would like to highlight here. The first relates to the Muslim idea of Islam. The second relates to the relationship between the various groups, or more specifically, to the Muslims’ perception of each other. If NU has changed from being political to being cultural, such a change in village life is marked by the intensification of da‘wa. In the opinion of one kiai, politics is only one among several means to promote or spread Islam. Muslims are now trying to mould society's religiosity not through politics but rather by increasing society's awareness through da‘wa.

Thus some Muslim leaders and kiai who have long seen the process of Islamisation by the state and by society as an inseparable effort, are inclined to choose society as their means of Islamisation rather than the power structure and political authority (Abdullah, 1988:17). It seems that kiai within NU now focus on managing education and spreading Islam generally rather than being involved in practical politics. This phenomenon is significant compared to that which existed during the 1950s when the idea of the Islamic state was so prevalent among Muslims. This phenomenon at least indicates that the number of Muslims pursuing the idea of an Islamic state or stressing everything by relating it to Islam, such as the application of Islamic law, has decreased. It is interesting to note that when I asked some respondents what the ideal form of society was, a large number did not refer to the application of Islamic principles. In contrast, they chose other options. From my survey of 182 respondents in four villages of Jombang, only 32.4 percent preferred to have Islamic law applied in society. About 26.9 percent of respondents chose to have a prosperous society, while around 17.0 percent suggested that they wanted their society to live morally (see Table 8.2).

(Source: questionnaire)

Although the proportion of respondents who wanted to see the application of Islamic law is larger than any other single preference, it still only accounts for one third of all respondents. These findings indicate that the respondents are attempting to find a balance between religious matters and prosperity in their lives. The existence of pesantren, which emphasise the need to strengthen religiosity, on the one hand, and the invasion of the inevitable modernisation process on the other, have influenced respondents’ perception of what a good society is. In one respondent's view, the ideal society is not only one which is affluent but one which is also religious.

The change in the attitude of Muslims of various organisations in Jombang about their inter-relationships cannot be separated from the change in perspective among the elites of Muhammadiyah and NU at the national level. The national Muhammadiyah and NU leaders, for example, held a joint conference to discuss their problems and to try to reach mutual understanding. Some of the leaders of both Muhammadiyah and NU even proposed that these organisations should provide the same identity cards for their members.

Although this change in attitude among Muslims in Jombang has occurred most importantly at the elite level of each Muslim organisation, it has also led to similar changes at the grassroots level. The effort of reformulating the concept of ukhuwa (brotherhood), for example, has not only warranted attention from the general Muslim population in Jombang, but has also affected daily behaviour, including the attitude of NU members towards marrying their children to members of other Muslim groups. I collected data related to marriage because of its widespread importance. Socially, intermarriage between Muslim groups can trigger changes in other aspects of their relations. For example, intermarriage between Muslim groups can reduce feelings of mutual mistrust or prejudice and can lead to better relationships in general. Previously intermarriage was a great issue among Muslims in Jombang.

The data I collected indicate that the unwillingness of NU members to marry with a member of the modernist group, Muhammadiyah, has declined significantly. Although the data only relate to attitudes, it is not rare to find members with an NU family background in Jombang married to members of Muhammadiyah. Only a small number of respondents remained uneasy about intermarriage. A common reason underlying this minority view revolves around the worry of being influenced by Muhammadiyah religious thoughts and practices. From Table 8.3 we can see that only a small percentage of respondents mentioned their dislike of intermarriage between Muslims of various groups (14.3 percent). About 82.9 percent respondents with NU background agreed with intermarriage; while 15.8 percent disapproved of such intermarriage.

n = 182

(Source: questionnaire)

This change in attitude, especially among NU members, may create a favourable situation for the development of Islam in Jombang in the future. Most NU respondents in present day Jombang do not see Muhammadiyah as a threat but as a partner in the obligation to develop Islam. Their acceptance of intermarriage indicates that they acknowledge that their difference with other groups is a matter of different Islamic practice and that the interpretation of Islam can vary from one group to another. It is hence feasible for various Islamic practices to be performed in one Muslim family. The wife may follow NU's practice of Islam, while her husband can follow Muhammadiyah practice. Masyhuri, an NU respondent, told me that he had a new member in his big family, who was Muhammadiyah in background. In his opinion, this did not raise any problem since all members of the family, including the new one, had a mutual understanding of their different practice of Islam.

n = 178

(Source: questionnaire)

Despite this positive tendency, many respondents still prefer to marry their children to people from the same Islamic organisation as themselves. Religious reasons are dominant in sustaining this preference. In the respondents’ opinion, other people's religious background, as expressed through their affiliation with certain Islamic groups, is an important factor when considering whether to accept someone as a member of the family. This preference is understandable. Most people still think that their practices of Islam are the best compared to those of other groups, though this no longer necessarily involves disparaging the latter.

n = 182

(Source: questionnaire)

Of the 120 respondents who chose NU members as their first preference as marriage partners for their children, 105 of them are affiliated with NU. This means that around 71.9 percent of the total number of NU respondents preferred to have their children married to people with NU family background. Only 3 respondents with NU background chose members of another Islamic organisation as their preferred choice of marriage partner for their children. They chose Muhammadiyah. The same pattern holds true of Muhammadiyah respondents. Most preferred people with Muhammadiyah background for their children. Of the various Islamic organisations in Jombang, the majority of respondents with NU background chose Muhammadiyah members as their second choice^[25].